The Fall of Napoleon's Army and the Effect of Spices on Exploration

   Napoleon's Buttons was written by Penny Le Couteur and Jay Burreson, and explains 17 groups of molecules that have had major impacts in history. From sugars to silk, dyes, caffeine, salt, etc., this book describes the history of the molecules and the effects they've had since discovery.

Introduction

  Napoleon's army, once 600,000 strong, dwindled down to less than 10,000 men within 6 months from June to December 1812. The French troops were not dressed nor were they properly equipped to survive the bitter cold of the Russian winter. Napoleon and the remaining troops retreated from Moscow. What happened to Napoleon's army that led to this retreat? As people say, "all for the want of a button". The downfall of this great army was quite possibly caused by... a button. The buttons used by the army were made of tin, which does not remain strong in cold temperatures. When the soldiers entered the bitter temperatures in Russia, their tin buttons slowly began disintegrating, leaving the soldiers to hold their garments together or find other materials to keep themselves warm. The problem, known as "Tin disease", was well known in Europe for many centuries. It is left for us to wonder- what would have happened if Napoleon's soldiers did not lose their buttons? 

   

Peppers, Nutmeg, and Cloves

   Pepper originated in India, from the Piper nigrum vine, and is the most commonly used spice. The vine can grow up to twenty feet, and produce up to ten kilograms of spice every season. The majority of pepper sold is black pepper, which is produced from the unripe pepper berries through fungal fermentation, but other forms of the spice can also be used. White pepper is formed from the ripe berry after it is skinned and dried, and is the second most used form of pepper. Green pepper is made by pickling the green berries in brine as they just start to ripen. Peppercorn found in other colors is often artificially dyed, or made from other berries.

   In the fifth century B.C., the Greeks used pepper as an antidote to poison, not for cooking/spice purposes. The Romans on the other hand, often used pepper and other spices to enhance their food. Spices, especially pepper, were used as preservatives in addition to improving the flavor of food. Since the sixth century A.D., merchants in Venice had created a huge market with salt, and later gained markets with pepper (people began to see pepper as irreplaceable due to its abilities). The demand for pepper led people to search for new sea routes to India, which would help kick off the Age of Discovery. Vasco da Gama reached India in 1948, then later returned with weapons to take over the pepper industry. Spain was also looking into pepper, which ultimately led Christopher Columbus to America. He was trying to find a shorter route to India to allow Spain to enter the spice trade. 

   The hot sensation we experience when eating pepper is caused by piperine. It is not a taste, but a response to the chemical stimulus by pain nerves. It is not fully understood how this works, but it is believed that the structure of the piperine molecule allows it to attach to proteins on the end of pain nerves, causing the proteins to change shape and send signals to the brain. When Columbus traveled to Haiti, he found the chili pepper and brought it back to Spain, even though it wasn't like the pepper he knew. Chili peppers, unlike peppercorn, grow on many species of the Capsicum genus (peppercorn is a single species). The chili pepper is believed to have originated in Mexico, and have been used for over 9,000 years. The compound responsible for the flavor of chili peppers is called capsaicin, which has a similar structure to that of piperine. These "hot" molecules increase the production of saliva in our mouths, which help with digestion. After eating spicy foods, the body releases endorphins as a response to pain.

   Nutmeg and cloves originated in the Spice Islands (Moluccas), and were much rarer than pepper. The people who lived on the islands where the spices could be found began harvesting them for trade. In 1512, Alfonso de Albuquerque, governor of Portuguese India, established direct trade with the Moluccas. Spain also wanted to get involved in the trade. In 1518, Ferdinand Magellan convinced the Spanish rulers that a westward route to the Spice Islands was not only possible, but shorter (sounds a lot like Columbus!). Magellan and his crew faced a treacherous journey, and Magellan was killed by natives on the island of Mactan. He never made it to the Moluccas, however his crew and ships continued on to Ternate, where the cloves were. Three years after departure, the eighteen survivors arrived back in Spain with 26 tons of spices on the last remaining ship- the Victoria. 

   Cloves and nutmeg come from different families and different island groups, and they each have their own distinctive odors. However, they have extremely similar aromatic molecules. Eugenol, found in the oil of cloves, and isoeugenol, found in the oil of nutmeg, have only one difference- the location of a double bond in the molecule. Piperine, capsaicin, eugenol, and isoeugenol are produced by the plants as a natural pesticide to protect themselves. Cloves were used to sweeten the breath of courtiers in the Chinese imperial court, while the oil was used to treat toothaches. Nutmeg has been used to treat stomach pain and rheumatism in China, as well as dysentery and cholic in southeast Asia. In Europe, it was used to protect against the Black Death. Eating nutmegs has been known to cause sickness, hallucinations, and even death.

   Due to the invention of refrigeration, spices are not as important for preservation. They are no longer major exports, and the conflicts and exploration caused by spices is in the past. We still enjoy spices in our food, but they are no longer at the peak they reached a few centuries ago.